Jeffrey Evans: Exploring Theory with Practica Musica
Editor: Patricia Carbon
Cover art: Steven Brown, Santa Barbara Artworks
ISBN 0-929444-08-6
© 1999, 2000, 2004 by Ars Nova Software. Digital Edition © 2005 by Ars Nova Software. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transcribed without the prior written permission of the publisher, Ars Nova Software, LLC, PO Box 3370, Redmond, WA 98073-3370, www.ars-nova.com.

Table of Contents

Preface		ix
Introduction		x

I. NOTATION OF PITCH		1			Beaming with a Purpose	16
	The Half Step and Whole Step	1			Beaming in 6/8 and 3/4	17
	Octaves and Pitch Class	2			Stem and Flag Direction	17
	Solmization (solfège)	2			Asymmetrical Meter	18
	Moveable do and Fixed do	3			Keeping Notation Simple	19
	Writing Pitches with Solmization Syllables	3			Summary	20
	The Staff and its Clefs	3
	Reading Pitches in the Common Clefs	4		III. READING RHYTHM		21
	Ledger Lines	5			Vocalizing the Beat	21
	Notating a Melody in the Treble Clef Staff	6			Mental Conducting	22
	Writing Music by Hand	6			More on Metric Accents	23
	The C Clef	7			Beyond the Written Note	25
	The Octava G Clef	7			Summary	27
	Origins of the Black Keys	7
	Using Accidentals	8		IV. COMPLEX RHYTHM		28
	Enharmonic Equivalents	9			The Tie	28
	Diatonic vs. Chromatic	9			Syncopation	28
	Summary	10			Hemiola	29
					Triplets, Duplets, and Tuplets	30
II. NOTATION OF RHYTHM		11			Summary	31
	The Beat and the Measure	11
	The Symbols of Rhythm Notation	12		V. INTERVALS		32
	Beams	12			Naming Intervals	32
	Dotted Notes	13			Major and Minor Intervals	32
	Rests	13			Perfect Intervals	33
	Meter	14			Augmented and Diminished Intervals	33
	Simple Meter	14			Interval Chart	33
	Duple and Triple Meter	15			Beyond Augmented and Diminished	34
	Compound Meter	15			Identifying Intervals Quickly	34

V. Intervals, cont'd	ii

	Inverting Intervals	35			Triads Natural to the Minor Keys	54
	More About Enharmonic Equivalents	36			Altering the Minor Dominant Chord	55
	Compound Intervals	36			Chord Inversions	55
	Consonant and Dissonant Intervals	37			Figured Bass (Thoroughbass)	56
	Enharmonic Dissonances	38			Altered Chords in Figured Bass	57
	Summary	39			Voicing	57
					Doubling	58
VI. SCALES AND KEY SIGNATURES		40			Uses of Close and Open Position	58
	Scale Degrees	40			Broken or Arpeggiated Chords	59
	The Natural Minor Scale	40			Summary	61
	Relative Minor and Relative Major	41
	Parallel Minor and Parallel Major	41		VIII. ADDING TO THE TRIAD		62
	Key Signatures	42			Seventh Chords	61
	The Circle of Fifths	43			The Dominant Seventh Chord	62
	Identifying Keys From the Signature	43			Resolving Chordal Dissonance	63
	Accidentals in the Context of a Key	44			Building the Dom. 7 in Different Keys	64
	Precautionary Accidentals	45			Inversion of Seventh Chords	64
	The Harmonic Minor Scale	45			Notating a Second Within a Chord	65
	The Melodic Minor	46			Identifying Chords Quickly	65
	The Pentatonic Scale	47			Other Types of Seventh Chords	66
	The Whole-tone Scale	48			Chromatically Altered Chords	67
	The Octatonic Scale	48			The Neapolitan Sixth	67
	The Blues Scale	48			The Augmented Sixth Chords	67
	The Church Modes	49			Ninth Chords and Beyond	68
	Transposing the Church Modes	49			Non-tertian Chords	69
	Chromatic vs. Diatonic Scales	50			Summary	70
	Summary	50
VII. TRIADS		52
	The Origins of Triadic Harmony	52		IX. CHORD PROGRESSION		71
	The Major and Minor Triads	52			Principles of Chord Progression	71
	Parts of a Triad	52			Chord Changes with the Primary Triads	71
	Dissonant Triads: Dim. and Aug.	53			Harmonic Rhythm	73
	Triads Natural to the Major Keys	53			Extending the Dom.-Tonic Relationship	74
	The Primary Triads in Major Keys	54			Progressing Backward	74
	The Secondary Triads in Major Keys	54			Root Movement by a Third	74

IX. Chord Progression, cont'd	iii

	Chord Substitution and root movement by a second	75			Minuet and Trio	103
					Rondo	104
	Secondary Dominants	75			Summary	104
	Modulation	76
	The Chord Progression Game	77		XIII. VOICE-LEADING		106
	Summary	104			Principles of Voice-Leading	107
					Economy of motion	107
X. BUILDING MELODY		80			Independence of Voices	108
	Melodic Movement	80			Resolving Dissonance	109
	Repetition	82			Nonharmonic tones	110
	The Phrase	83			The Passing Tone	110
	The Period	84			The Neighboring Tone	110
	Cadences	84			The Appogiatura	111
	Harmonic Implications of Melody	85			The Escape	111
	Harmonizing Melody	86			The Suspension	111
	Nonharmonic Tones	87			The Anticipation	111
	Summary	89			The Pedal Point	111
					Writing in the Chorale Style	113
XI. DEVELOPING MELODY		90			Summary	115
	The Motive	90
	The Sequence	91
	Regular Transformations	93		XIV. EXPRESSION MARKS		116
	Two Types of Rhythmic Variation	94			Dynamics	116
	Free Transformation: Elaboration	94			Crescendo and Decrescendo	116
	A Transformed Motive	94			Signs Affecting Articulation	117
	Summary	96			Accent	117
					Slurs and Phrasing Marks	118
XII. ELEMENTS OF FORM		97			Tempo Indications	119
	Binary and Ternary Song Forms	97			Common Italian Musical Terms	119
	Other Forms of Organization	99			Summary	120
	The Chaconne	99
	Ostinato and the Passacaglia	100		APPENDICES		121
	Canon and Round	100			The Physics of Music	121
	Compound Forms: The Classical Symphony	102			Partials	121
	Sonata Form	102			Instrumental Color	123
	Theme and Variations	103			Temperament	124

Appendices, cont'd iv

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	Glossary	126
	Music for Class Use	131
	Rhythm Band	131
	Vocal Tuning	132
	Rounds	132
	Instructions for Using Practica Musica	137
	Index	139

WORKSHEETS (tear-out) (not in digital version)

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Preface v

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Preface
This text is meant to accompany the computer program Practica Musica, version 4 or later. Practica Musica provides a wealth of practical exercises, and this book makes much use of the software to find the reality behind the abstractions of pitch, harmony, and rhythm. Practica Musica supports the text in many ways: it supplies audio accompaniment to each chapter by playing all the music examples; its Textbook Activities coordinate with chapters of the book; students can use the software to identify chords and intervals, to hear complex rhythms, and as a general ear training tutor. They can even apply the knowledge gained in the text to write and print their own music. The subject matter covered in the text is that of an introductory music theory course, though some chapters will at times go well beyond the essentials of an introduction. Similarly, the software has something for both beginners and more advanced students: the higher levels of play in each activity can be challenging to anyone, while the correction capabilities and friendly patience of the computer should help even the shyest novice. The variety of instructional approaches can only grow, since the new software allows instructors to create activities on their own. Ars Nova is supplying diverse activities on the enclosed CD and at the Ars Nova web site (www.ars-nova.com). We hope that professors will add their own creations to this library of instruction. Much of the text is taken from the Third Edition of Windows on Music, but we have reorganized and extended the material. We have also devised a collection of special Practica Musica activities that are coordinated with the text and particularly appropriate for the beginning music student or non-major (the program also includes more difficult activities). The Textbook Activities cover most of the material that is normally tested in the form of written exercises, with the advantage of providing instant feedback and individual progress reports. But you will also find here written exercises that give the student experience in putting music on paper. Certain tasks, after all, are best done by hand for reasons both practical and aesthetic. We have added a group of rounds for class singing, a tuning-up exercise, and a rhythm band page, on the theory that if students are able to practice their basic skills with the computer there will be more time in class for those things a computer can't do, which include both discussion with the instructor and group activities such as singing in parts. Belated thanks are due the school where I did my graduate work, the University of California at Santa Barbara; it was there in 1986 that the first version of Practica Musica was written, with the aid of a grant from the Office of Instructional Development. And particularly I would like to express my thanks to all those professors and music instructors who have written over the years either with corrections or with new ideas for the text and the software. Both are better for it.

Introduction	vi

Introduction

The object of our study is the musical language developed in Europe over the course of the last 1000 years, particularly the tonal music that is associated with such composers as Bach, Mozart and Beethoven and which also forms the basis of modern popular music. What we want to learn first about this language of sound is its notation how to read it and how to write down what we hear or imagine in a way that can be easily understood by others. Along the way to musical literacy we'll gain some insights into how tonal music came to be, and we'll acquire familiarity with its basic materials: the beat, the measure, major and minor scales, and triads. We'll study the way that the basic materials of music are built into melody and harmony, and describe principles that can help you to write music of your own. If you take an interest in traditional music of other cultures, or in western jazz or contemporary music, you will find that this knowledge retains its usefulness.

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